Two Centuries of Silence

 Since the outbreak of the US-Iran war, President Trump has claimed that a deal is close to being signed over 40 times, and till now, a status quo ante hasn’t been reached. Neither has there been an agreement on Iran’s nuclear program, nor could the Trump administration restore the pre-war status of free and safe passage through the Strait of Hormuz. The war erupted on Feb 28^th and the only recordable triumph Washington could register has been the assassination of the Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenini. While some analysts frame the Iran-US War as the biblical David versus Goliath given the power imbalance and asymmetry, all these notions appear so puerile as Iran, besides shattering the myth of American invincibility, is now indirectly dictating terms by weaponising its geography. The closure of the Strait of Hormuz and the concomitant disruption of supply chains have inflicted a massive economic shock on the Middle East, with countries incurring $3 trillion in losses.

Even under massive attacks and a naval blockade, Iran dug in and bolstered its defensive strategy. Instead of conceding, Iran initially even dominated the global narrative, creating an illusion of having the upper hand. After going full throttle with firepower, with Tehran resisting American pressure, Trump declared “Operation Economic Fury” to bring Iran to the table. Against all the odds, Iran’s ability to make a negotiated settlement on its own terms surprised the world. Iran’s unflinching tenacity despite decades of sanctions, beginning with US trade freezes after the US embassy hostage crisis in 1979, lifted in 1981 and then reimposed in 1987, eventually expanded into US multilateral sanctions from 2006. Over the past three decades, Iran has endured a sanctions regime for state-sponsored terrorism and its nuclear program. Instead of breaking down under external pressure, Iran is standing up to Washington as the domestic Iranian society, though unhappy with the government, is rallying behind it.

Iran’s resilience and defiance can be traced back to its civilisational journey, a history of revolution and a turbulent past. Depicting these struggles, the book “Two Decades of Silence”, written by Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub, an expert in Iranian literature and Persian culture, explores the chaotic shift of the Persian Empire in the first two centuries after the Arab attack. Originally written in Persian and published in 1957, the book was translated into English by Avid Kamgar. Written eight decades ago, the book is a testament to the innate tendency of Iranians to rebel and weaken an adversary through incessant and unrelenting battles.

Penned elegantly by Prof Zarrinkoub, the central theme of the book is to shed light on the two centuries since the fall of Nahavand in 642 CE, when the Sassanid Empire collapsed during the Arab conquest. This also marks the end of fourteen centuries of Iranian history. Iranians originally followed the ancient Zoroastrian faith. It coexisted with several faiths like Manichaeism, Mazdakism, Shamanism and Zandakeh. Brimming with cultural richness, philosophical debates, scientific works and intellectual activity, the Persian Empire had five major languages: Pahlavi, Dari, Khuzi, Soghdi, and Persian. Arab invasion cast a dark spell on the history and language of Iran. Prior to the arrival of Islam in Iran, the rhythmic poetry and tender songs echoed in the Sasanian palaces.

Arab Muslims launched direct attack on languages and dialects of Iran. Books were burnt. Mobeds and Hirbods (the higher-order Zoroastrian priests) who took care of the literary works were targetted. Use of native scripts like Pahlavi and Khwarezmian declined as local writers were murdered. Soon, the use of the Persian language declined and went silent.

Though Iranians accepted Islam, they were unwilling to learn Arabic. They used to recite the namaz verses in Soghdian Persian in a symbolic deep connect with their language. While this symbolised the Iranian defiance, Persian ceased to be the administrative language. With this, a brutal silence had enveloped Iran for two centuries when melodious poetry, minstrel singing and a nurturing literary environment faded, giving way to Arabic combat verses and laudatory elegies. Laid out in ten chapters, the book elegantly portrays the darkest phase in Iranian history. Targetting religious faith and language, Arabs have tried to exterminate the identity of Iranians.

The rise of the Arabs came at a time when the two powerful Empires- Roman and Byzantine were relatively weakened due to wars. The Sasanid Empire was also in the throes of deterioration, with rampant bigotry, falsehood and concomitant political and spiritual decline. The Sasanid rulers, given to pleasure-seeking, hardly focused on administration; the country was in ruins. In the days leading to Arab raids, the treasonous army and the greedy clergy also abandoned their duties and fled like rats on a sinking ship. The Empire was also on the verge of annihilation. It just needed one hard blow to crumble.

Arabs united under the flagship of the Prophet’s message of brotherhood and equality and steered by jihad, began plundering small provinces. The defeat of the Sasanid Empire, which at its height of glory spanned present-day Iran, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, at the hands of Muslim Arabs, drastically changed the political, cultural, linguistic and religious landscape of the region. The common man, burdened by the misgovernance of the Sasanid Empire, accepted the new religion without much resistance. However, the racial prejudice and mass slaughter suffered by the Iranians, especially at the hands of the Umayyad Caliphate, seeded deep-seated hatred towards Arabs. Hajjaj, the most brutal Umayyad ruler, destroyed fire temples and built mosques over them.

Over the two centuries, Iranians actively penetrated the administration of the Arab Caliphate and supported all kinds of rebellions against it. Aligning with riots, Iranians successfully overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate. The successor Abbasid Caliphate built the heartland of A Thousand and One Nights in Iraq, lying at the confluence of Arab and Persian civilisations, with the treasures plundered from Iranians. During this period, several non-Arab sects emerged to rekindle spiritual awareness and serve as founts of rebellion. Babak, Mazyar and Afshin led Iranian rebellions. The rebellions considerably weakened Arab influence.

The resistance of Iranians, particularly in Khorasan and Tabarestan, led to rise of two Iranian dynasties which resurrected Iran. The Taherian Iranian dynasty defeated Arabs and laid the foundation for Iranian independence. The two centuries from the fall of Nahavand in 642 CE to the death of Babak in 838CE have been a period of intense struggle.

The objective portrayal of the Iranian struggle to free itself from the yoke of Muslim Arabs makes this book a quintessential read for Iranians to fathom their civilisational struggle and resilience. This struggle hard-wired and shaped Iranian animosity towards the Arabs. This deep-seated historical, ethnic and ideological bitterness persists even now.  The animosity has two dimensions to them- ethnicity and religion. Iranians considered themselves elitist and civilised and regarded Arab desert dwellers as uncouth, while Arabs rejected Iran’s Shia practices.

The passionate elucidation of Iranian struggles provides rare insights about the civilisational attributes of Iranians. Ancient civilisations across the world have been extremely resilient. Having weathered centuries of political upheavals and military campaigns, they have the historic memory of absorbing brutal shocks. What is particularly interesting about the Iranian struggle has been their relentless quest for autonomy. Caught unaware, having initially accepted Islam, Iran resolutely fought back to assert their identity. With little or no knowledge of administration, Arabs had to seek Iranian help to govern. Iranians who were the elitist cream of the Arab administration tactically controlled the Arab Caliphates. Admitting Iranian superiority, the Umayyad Caliphate said, “I am amazed by these Iranians. They ruled for a thousand years and even for an hour did not need our help; we have ruled no more than a century, but have not been able to do without them for an hour.” (p 87).

Analysing the historical endurance of countries, in this case Iran, is extremely important to assess how it can survive long fights. With the Iran-US war showing no signs of an end, policy makers, leaders and geopolitical analysts must look at the historical antecedents of the opponents to recalibrate their strategies.

This historical book, which is more inquiry-driven, offers a fact-oriented perspective. Avoiding exaggerated portrayal of Arab zealotry, the author, wary of punitive consequences of dissent, maintains a reflective tone. While its nuanced prose lends the book a distinctive scholarly quality, the detached narration of mass slaughter ultimately underscores the pressures of ideological conformity in Iran.

 

Printed Pages: 335

Publisher: Author House

 

From Gods to the God: Christianisation of the Roman Empire

 Secularism in India, broadly borrowed from the West, embodies the concept of “Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava". Ironically, there is no Western equivalent of Dharma. Again, to fit India’s principled approach to the Western secularism template, Dharma is loosely equated with religion and, by extension, the philosophy of the Indian state is rooted in “equal respect for all religions”. By interchangeably using Dharma and Religion, the sweeping magnitude of timeless traditions is contained within a limited, cyclical, and dogmatic religious framework; the vastness of the civilisational inheritance is distilled into one truth and a world of binaries.

In the process, some of the beliefs and rituals associated with these timeless traditions are negated, labelled as pagan and branded as uncivilised. By tracing origins to a single biblical figure and adopting a linear approach to history, with a beginning and an end to creation, the narrow Western theological framework developed the concept of Religion’. The word religio, with its Latin roots, was historically referred to as a bond, an obligation or principled reverence to gods. An alternative explanation suggests that the word ‘religion’ is associated with the Latin word ‘religare’ meaning to rebind, reconnect or renew. The Roman philosophers described ‘Religion’ as a ‘dutiful obligation to divine matters’. However, with covenants forming the bedrock of these Western faiths, despite various interpretations, a reciprocal obligation remains their core doctrine. This foundational concept sets the Western faith apart from the age-old traditions of polytheism.

Indian culture, rooted in a polytheistic tradition, has been syncretic and inclusive. But now, it is facing theological onslaughts from the monotheistic Western worldview that continues to shape the dominant global narratives. History bears sobering evidence of the decimation of the polytheistic traditions at the hands of imperialistic monotheistic faiths. Polytheism has been the default cultural way of living for millennia. Broken temples, silenced gods and dilapidated structures in Greece, Syria and Anatolia are a poignant reminder of fallen faiths. With Sanatana Dharma facing a two-pronged attack from the proselytising monotheistic religions, it is important to study their origins and doctrinal values and examine their suitability for modern societies. Tracing the origins of monotheistic religions from a historical perspective, Dr Rama Seshan C, in his debut book, “From Gods to the God: Christianisation of the Roman Empire”, offers a comprehensive overview of the theological foundations of Western civilisation.

The book, believed to be the first part of the series, explores the origins of Christianity deeply embedded in Judaism. Structured into seventeen chapters, the 532 page provides a comprehensive view of monotheism beginning from the biblical figure Abraham. Besides a primary introduction to Judaism, Christianity, Islam and polytheistic culture, the pedagogical approach to the subject makes it very interesting. Be mused to find sections named Abrahamic Religions 101, Geography 101, and The Hebrew Bible 101. True to their titles, all of them lay a solid foundation to understand the concepts of monotheism and polytheism.

Akin to a course plan at the beginning of the academic curriculum which enlists the different aspects that would be dealt with during the course of study, the introductory chapter clearly lists out all the aspects of the book in an orderly manner. The initial chapters of the book exude a rare pedagogical style of narration. A few pages into the book, the reader would get the feeling of having enrolled on a Theology course. The unique didactic approach adopted by the author would convince the reader that the author must have been an excellent teacher.

 

What makes this historical treatise an interesting read is the metrics plotted in a graph for the predicted proportional rise of the Christian population in the Roman Empire and in India (factoring that for every 100 Christians, one Hindu is converted every year). The book takes you on a time travel starting from biblical Abraham, the migration of his grandson Jacob (Israel) from Canaan (present-day Southern Levant) and his clan to Egypt to escape severe famine along with his son Joseph. Enslaved by the Egyptians for generations, freed during the Exodus and led by Moses, they eventually conquer and settle down in the promised land led by Joshua. 

The clan unite under King Saul, King David and King Solomon. But after Solomon, under his son Rehoboam, 10 Northern tribes and two southern states separate. The Southern tribes of Judah and Benjamin, loyal to the line of King David and Solomon, establish the Kingdom of Judah with Jerusalem as capital and inherit the temple built by Solomon. While the Northern tribes, which subscribe to inclusive worship of Baal, Asherah and Yahweh, make Samaria their capital.

Around the 6^th century BCE, the Babylonians destroy the First Temple and force Judah’s residents to Babylon. By around 539 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire based in Persia under Cyrus allows the exiles in Babylon to go back to their homeland and helps them build the Second Temple in 516 BCE. Indeed, all the events related to Jewish people are marked by specific covenants or reciprocal promises between God and people, where God offers protection and direction while people agree to uphold the principles enunciated by him. The book specifically refers to the Abrahamic Covenant, which establishes Abraham as the father of many nations; the Mosaic Covenant, where God promises to make Israel a treasured possession and, in return, people must obey his commandments and Torah; Davidic Covenant, where God promises David that one of his descendants will reign over Israel forever. All these covenants are detailed in the Hebrew Bible.

The covenants form the bedrock of Christianity, which draws its doctrinal principles from the Hebrew Bible. Effortlessly segueing the story from the Promised Land to the times of Roman Occupation of Israel to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, the author incrementally introduces the reader to the foundational framework of Christianity. Alongside, the book takes a deep dive into the connection between Ancient Rome, Greece, and the Hellenistic Age, providing a brief glimpse of the intellectual and cultural vibrancy of Greek society. After the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, his vast empire was divided among his four generals, forming Hellenistic Kingdoms.

After intense battles, Israel became part of the Seleucid kingdom by around 200BCE. Till 178BCE, Jews were ruled by a council of priests, the ‘Gerusia’, on behalf of the Hellenistic Kingdom, and they were allowed to practice their faith as long as they paid taxes. But Seleucid Monarch Antiochus IV Epiphanes attempted to impose Hellenic Law. The Hasmoneans, the orthodox Jews, rebelled, triggering the Maccabean Revolt, following which they were allowed to return to their old practices. The temple was also rededicated, celebrated as Hanukkah, leading to the eventual establishment of the Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom with King Simon as their first ruler.

The polytheistic Greek culture introduced Greek culture and Gods but allowed the worship of old gods. As a result, a syncretic society with two sets of gods and culture prevailed. But the Monotheistic Judaism does not allow the worship of any other gods. For the first time, the Hasmonean King John Hyrcanus, after conquering the neighbouring kingdoms, attempted to convert non-Jews in response to Hellenisation. After 80 years of Hasmonean Rule, due to bitter rivalry between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, the Kingdom of Judah fell into the hands of the Romans in 63 BCE. Since then, Jews were under foreign rule until 1948.

Romans ruled Judah through a puppet King, Herod the Great, who belonged to the Edomite Dynasty whose ancestors were converted to Judaism. Though he lavishly expanded the Second Temple, Jews disliked him as he was a convert and not an ethnic Jew. It was during his reign that Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem. While Jesus was crucified by the Romans, Jews were held responsible. The gospels of Christ, which appeared 40 years after his death, were predominantly anti-Semitic. The epistles, especially those of the apostle Paul, who was a Pharisaic Jew, steered such rhetoric and accused them of deicide (p187).

The first generation of Christians increasingly believed that they were living at the end of human history and that God would lead the world through judgement after resurrection. The apocalyptic fervour is part of the discourse of both Christianity and Islam. While this was toned down with “good news” in later texts, this is still a dominant theme in Islam. “In the Abrahamic worldview, god is apart from nature and not to be found in nature, and there is nothing divine about nature”. In Hinduism, everything is gods. In Islam, everything is God’s. The apostrophe makes all the difference. (p203)

The stark fundamental differences between the Abrahamic and Pagan faith systems became a point of intense friction as the Christian population began to increase. Pagans didn’t care what you believed as long as you didn’t insult their beliefs. All they demanded was appropriate action and sacrifice. They believed anything about the gods or the world, and hence philosophy and science blossomed, and society flourished without any religious opposition. The Greco-Roman world before the onset of Christianity was pagan. Pagans valued ancestral and cultural continuity. For Christians and Muslims, “what is of supreme importance is one’s personal relation with God and a seat in future heaven”. The focus on individual future progress without regard to the collective values and ancestral traditions is reflected in the apocalyptic verses of the New Testament (p216). Another glaring and notable difference between the Pagan and Abrahamic religions is the absence of a supreme feminine goddess. Ancient Romans and Greeks had a Mother goddess, a deity of fertility. There is no divinity associated with Abrahamic religions, especially Judaism and Islam, since the Virgin Mary was elevated to a worshipable entity by Christians.

The Edict of Milan of 313, issued by Emperors Constantine and Licinius, propelled the rise of Christianity as a marginalised group into a dominant and powerful entity. Pagans, though a majority in terms of numbers, were caught unaware by the slow and systemic rise of Christians under the Emperors, feigned tolerance and never openly divulged their faith for fear of losing the support of Pagans who were influential and majoritarian. Rulers, decidedly anti-pagan, slowly began to admonish religious practices and rituals. They imposed restrictions on their festivals, except those that generated money and stripped off their rituals were allowed. Deeming divination and animal practices as superstitions, people were warned from continuing such practices. Special favours and tax waivers were bestowed on Christian majority areas. Announcing capital punishment for idolatry and animal sacrifices, Pagans were forced to abdicate their ancestral practices.

Over a period of time, temple valuables were looted, idols destroyed, sacrificial places desecrated and vandalised, forcing pagans to abandon them. Idols and books were burnt. The City of Constantinople was raised and adorned with the spoils of temples in Greece. With the notable exception of Emperor Julian, who returned to Paganism for a brief period, the Christian rulers passed decrees and legislation targeting the priestly class, forcing the closure of temples. Soon, pagans were denied government jobs and removed from imperial jobs. Labelling them as heretics, they were not allowed to construct any temples and imposed the strictest punishments for apostates or people who relapsed into paganism from Christianity. Evangelisation, which began in the countryside, spread like a storm engulfing various sections of society. The upper class were quick to convert to escape the wrath of the rulers.

 By 600 CE, there weren’t any pagans left in the Roman Empire. In two centuries, even all traces of paganism were wiped out. Christianity appropriated the Jewish Bible as the Old Testament. Claiming that its laws no longer applied to Christians, they nevertheless used selected Old Testament verses, misinterpreting them as prophecies of Christ's coming. Similarly, they removed myths from Greco-Roman texts and retained verses of Pagan authors to make it appear to predict the coming of Christ. Cultural appropriation is ingrained in the DNA of Christianity- else what explains the practices of ghee lamps, Dwaja Stambha and hymns of Yesu Suprabhatam in Catholic and Protestant Churches of South India?   

The methodical erasure of the pagan faith system in the Roman Empire is no different from the threats the majority in India, the Hindus, are facing. Ironically, Christians who were once a minority pleaded with the pagans to practice their faith. But once their numbers began to grow, their overpowering caused the extermination of pagans.

The last chapter of the book, ‘Christianity in the Present Secular World’, brilliantly dissects the various aspects of Christianity-particularly its glorification of weakness and weaponisation of suffering. The cardinal principle of favouring weakness and meekness finds contemporary expression in the Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) rhetoric and the reservation policies. Christianity, as the bedrock of Western Civilisation, has profoundly shaped many concepts and values like secularism, communism, social justice and Islamic theology, making an understanding of its psyche, motivations, origins and end goal indispensable.

Busting some well-guarded myths through his meticulously researched work, the author has daringly exposed the perfidy of the religion of love where the use of force for conversion receives a religious sanction. According to Paul, “conversion is not a betrayal of faith but homecoming, as only one true god existed since the dawn of creation; demons corrupted it” (p528). The book is an essential read and highly recommended for researchers keen on rational analysis of faiths based on a theological framework and for enthusiasts who want to understand global religious history.

I would like to commend the author for his painstaking scholarship in producing this work, which offers a bold, balanced and dispassionate articulation of Abrahamic faiths in general and Christianity in particular. The work also issues a stark warning to the world's only surviving major polytheistic faith, urging it to critically reflect and assess the challenges posed by the exclusivist Abrahamic traditions.

 

Printed Pages: 576

Publishers: BLUONEINK Pvt LtdTop of FormBottom of Form